Interoffice Memo Essay Example for Free

Interoffice Memo EssayYesterday, July 1, 1976, the rule in the case of Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of atomic number 20 was decided. The Supreme Court of California imposed a legal duty to psychotherapists, enforceable by a civil suit, to warn a person who may become a victim of a flushed act by a patient or if the patient threatens to harm themselves. As professionals in the benignant Service field it is necessary that we adhere to this when a client may threaten to hurt themselves or another person. With this ruling, and before any action is taken, we are reminded of our code of ethics. Human Service Professionals have guidelines in their responsibility to the client. The ruling of this case has affected our ethical decision making, in that, we also acknowledge that we carry to not only assist our client but also, if threat is made, to assist and nourish a effectiveness victim. Once this threat is made, ethically, we have no option but to report it and to not do so, we spoil our code of ethics and the law. This case has made us aware of the fact that threats can and possibly go away be carried out, therefore, threats should not and will not be taken lightly.Our Code of Ethics has changed slightly since this ruling was imposed and while we still protect our clients confidentiality and privacy, there is now an exception. If it is suspected that hazard or harm may occur to theclient or to others as a result of a clients behavior, the human service professional acts in an appropriate and professional manner to protect the safety of those individuals. This may involve seeking consultation, supervision, and/or breaking the confidentiality of the relationship. (Woodside and McClam, 2011)ReferencesWoodside, M., McClam, T. (2011). An introduction to human services (7th ed.). Belmont, CABrooks/Cole Cengage Learning.

Inputs Diagnosis Whole Foods Essay Example for Free

Inputs Diagnosis all in all Foods EssayThe range of competitors within the overall industry include chain and independent super securities industrys (Krogers, Safeway, others) circumstances merchandisers and super centers (Wal-mart,Target) convenience stores wholesale clubs (surface-to-air missiles) restaurants and prompt victuals for thought chains and intrinsic food stores ( undivided Foods, Wild Oats Generally the concentration of competitors has been fragmented by geography. However, through juvenile integratings, the emergence of regional and national chains has started to prevail along with the decline of the independent/local shops. This consolidation activity has allowed many companies to spread their fixed be over a wider range of output, thus creating much efficiency in operations. Often, it is cheaper for a company to acquire an incumbent due to the location of their stores and access to customers quite an than to raise the capital for entirely new stores, which is how Whole Foods has been fitting to expand following their growth sample strategy. Whole Foods acquisition growth plan has helped them to gain enough economies of scale to better compete with the Wal-marts and Sams Clubs. brat of SubstitutesPrice of substitutes plays a role in determining a companys profitability. Organic food is priced at a premium to conventional food reflecting the high labor costs in cultivating the crossing. The price premium may be one reason why organic food has non become mainstream. Another reason is that consumers either lack education about its benefits (or dont cargon) so that the price premium does not appear to be justified. However, when comparing upscale organic and ready foods to competitors such as restaurants, the benefit/cost ratio appears more justified.Market research conducted shows that 20 percentage of shoppers as dedicated to healthy eating.(PRNEWSWIRE, 2013) These shoppers tend to be better educated, more affluent, couples or hit without children, and generally in better physical shape than the rest of the population. These individuals that actively seek out health and nutritional information, be younger to middle aged, and bring in medium to high household incomes. Thus, this market section likely has a higher propensity to substitute than the sh argon above, but still is probably frown than the overall market. In total, the organic segment of the market has captured 73 percent of consumers as of 2008.(QSRMAGAZINE, 2013)Buyer forefingerThe retail grocery market is typically considered somewhat resistant to economic downturns, thus, to some degree, consumers food budgets are price insensitive. However, in that location is risk that consumers will switch from high quality / high margin stores to throng merchandisers (Walmart, Shop N Save) to stretch declining incomes further in a downturn market. Furthermore, while individual consumers typically lack significant buyer power to affect the spec ific prices of products, collectively, they can exert influence on retailers to sell or not sell specific types of products.Supplier PowerThe organic food suppliers are not highly concentrated, so natural food retailers have some power over them. Also, the natural food retailers may have the ability to backward integrate with partnerships and joint ventures with local growers. In addition, there is a trend for top conventional food manufacturers to invest in national/organic food companies as shown by the following excerpt * Kraft (NYSE KFT ) Boca Foods, Back to Nature* PepsiCo (NYSE PEP ) Naked juice* General Mills (NYSE GIS ) Cascadian Farm, Muir Glen * Dean Foods Horizon, The Organic Cow of Vermont, Alta Dena, White Wave/Silk * ConAgra (NYSE CAG ) Lightlife, Alexia Foods* Kellogg (NYSE K ) Morningstar Farms, Kashi, Gardenburger, hold out Naked * Coca-Cola (NYSE KO ) Odwalla* MM Mars Seeds of Change* Hain Celestial (Nasdaq HAIN ) Nile Spice, Health Valley, Bearitos, Earths Best, Walnut Acres (FOOL, 2013) Thus, the large number of suppliers of organic products, the less influence one supplier can have in the market. Threat of New EntryBecause the retail grocery market is typically low margin, typically in the mid-single frame range.(VALUELINE, 2013) It is critical for companies to have some type of cost advantage over peers, the larger chains may be able to obtain better and cheaper access to products than the independent stores(economies of scale). Labor is also a significant cost to retail grocers, representing 50% to 53% of total operational costs (EHOW, 2013). Other operating costs (including rent, utilities, transportation, and technology) are controllable by the company.Lastly, technology costs are key in the retail grocery industry in order to increase efficiency in operations and aid marketing aids. Point-of-sale systems can help to increase inventory turnover and sales and lead to better targeted customer marketing (COUNTERPOINTPOS, 2013) Other areas that affect new entry into a market include capital requirements, economies of scale, and grease identity. All of these factors have been discussed to some degree under other forces. Retaliation by incumbent competitors is an master(prenominal) element in determining the threat of new entry. Specifically, Whole Foods faces a threat from conventional supermarkets and mass merchandisers who may move to carry organic products within their stores.CONGRUENCE MODELIn conducting the Nadler-Tushman Congruence impersonate, of Whole Foods Markets input signals and how they align with the strategy. I have resubmitted the nonplus for your review The congruence model has four modals for analysis1. Inputs resources employ by the organization but also its history and its social, economic and market position. Resources include people, technology, capital and report 2. Strategies what strategies best match the inputs to produce and how to produce those outputs from the availabl e inputs. 3. Organizational components allows the analyst to isolate the individual influences and alter them for a good fit 4. Performance -include the ability to pinpoint where performance is not adequate and to contact the reason back to a lack of congruence in the models part (SMALLBUSINESS 2013) The model is good for input diagnosis and it can be garbled down with the following stepsTASKSThe diddle itself does not wish any specific skill set or knowledge except to be as personable as possible and like dealing with people. While there are materialistic rewards to working at whole Foods the other reward is the ability to have a vote in how things happen in the company. Whole Foods runs on democratic capitalism where all of the work is teamwork.(Fastcompany, 2013) the system itself tends to creative while at the same time it is mechanistic as everything has to be in its correct spot just so-so. The work flows from the top down with a healthy response for the department teams . The department teams have the sole arbitrary right to hire and approve new hires which upper management screens first. The work is through, caring and precise. The teams are mutually beneficial as they are all an integral part of the stores supremacy as a whole together. battalionThe people of Whole Foods are a team oriented group with a single mindedness to have their store succeed with a democratic disciplined outlook. Most of the employees are young, well-educated individuals whose participation reinforces attention to performance and profit.ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTUREThe organization is set up as a virtuous fate which has a two way avenue to company policies to improve the companys bottom line. Whole Foods has a knack to please their customers and every employee is empowered to correct as discrepancy that is brought to their attention by a customer. Each department is s3et up as a team which has a direct charge on bonuses through gainsharing. (Fastcompany, 2013) Sales per la bor hour the productivity metric at Whole Foods, land reinforces discipline. If someone doesnt do the work and gets a poor rating then the team suffers in lost bonus money.CulturePeople work as a team to get the product out the door and keep customers happy and returning for repeat business. With that said the companys success is driven by their employees attention to detail and satisfying the customer. Whole Foods has open salary notion where everyone knows what everybody else makes salary and bonuses. Also every store knows what another store is doing in sales, salary and bonuses. With that being know an individual wanting to transfer to another store or state knows what that store is doing financially and is able to make a well informed decision as to what to do with their career. There appears to be no political intrigue involved with the company and the Hill as most of the food wholesale segment is already tightly monitored as far as food safety and other regulation.The above listed modals are in in alignment with the major faculty of Whole Foods in comparison to the Congruence model and Porters Five Forces Model. Their strength is the fact tht they can withstand entry of new competition due to their market chare and market segmentation. While companys can enter into the retail food market they would be hard pressed to copy Whole foods business strategy in empowering their employees and making it work as far as satisfying their customers and meeting Whole Foods profit margin. Porters five forces strength model aligns quite well with the resources modal of the congruence model and several of the segments blur as everything is not cut and dried and able to be placed in the puzzle of what is Whole Foods.As a whole the strategies under the congruence and Porters model align with the complete Porters Five Forces Model well to give a rounded view of what Whole Foods is and what they can do if they stick to their military commission statement and core values . Under the restraints of this report all of the congruence segments critical to the analysis as broken down the model reinforce Porters with their strength segment. As listed above the three input factors complement apiece other in regards to the strengths of the company as a whole. Also if you review my earlier reports all of my suppositions are supported and well documented as to how Whole Foods supports its marketing style and fills a niche with customers in search of alternatives to non-natural food stuffs..ReferencesPercent health food consumers retrieved February 2013 from http//www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-survey-shows-shoppers-eating-more-meals-at-home-cooking-meals-to-save-money-62056997.html Flat Lining Organics retrieved February 2013 from http//www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-survey-shows-shoppers-eating-more-meals-at-home-cooking-meals-to-save-money-62056997.html Investing in organics retrieved February 2013 from http//www.fool.com/ spend/high-growth/2009 /01/16/investing-in-organics.aspx Retail grocery market industry analysis retrieved February 2013 from http//www.valueline.com/Stocks/Industry_Report.aspx?id=7243 calculate food

Strategies for Forecasting Emergency Department Demand

St regularizegies for Forecasting Emergency surgical incision DemandA Multivariate Time Series Approach to Modeling and Forecasting Demand in the Emergency DepartmentIntroductionReports by the General Accounting Office, American College of Emergency Physicians, and the Institute of Medicine (IOM) depict an overburden United States crisis cargon frame take to the woods descri do it by congestion and patient consideration delays. From 1993 to 2003 crisis division (ED) visits spread out by 26% while the quantity of EDs diminished by 9%. These shifts in picture and sideline have make a situation in which numerous EDs consistently work at or past their composed limit. A 2002 hire charged by the American infirmary Association found that roughly 66% of either last bingle of EDs overviewed accept that they be working at or above limit. The same study found that the impression of congestion is utterly related with the intricacy of administrations the doctors quick-wittedness offers and is more predominant among clinics in urban telescopes. Notwithstanding having an antagonistic force on patient and clinician fulfillment, ED congestion has malicious impacts on the both the quality and eratables of consideration conveyed in the ED.Expanding use up consolidated with developing lack of ED administrations makes the full-bodied allotment of ED assets progressively imperative. In their report, the IOM prescribes that clinics use entropy innovation and utilization operations research techniques to end up more productive 3. chase anticipating is one such technique, determining is a broadly clever, multi-disciplinary science, and is a fundamental movement that is utilise to guide natural selection making in numerous zones of financial, mechanical, and experimental arranging. Demonstrating and anticipating interest is a dynamic grunge of request among crisis medication scientists. Models and strategies that may be blue-chip for giving option backing continu ously for running(a) and asset portion errands have been quite compelling. A mixture of distinctive techniques have been proposed as competent method for gauging request in the ED, a percentage of the proposed routines atomic number 18 uni-variate snip arrangement demonstrating, recreation displaying, queuing hypothesis, and railcar learning strategies.The last goal was to investigate the potential utility of our multivariate determining models to give choice backing continuously for avai research lable to come back to work resultant staffing. The capacity to powerfully set and assign staffing assets is prone to develop in significance as regulations obliging doctors facilities and EDs to hold degraded to medical checkup caretaker staffing proportions get to be more normal. The most settled samples of such government regulations exist in the condition of California where healing facilities have been obliged to watch particular patient-to-medical caretaker proportions subseq uent to 2004. These regulations are problematical in any case, government regulation of patient-to-attendant staffing proportions in different parts of the nation is plausible and pertinent enactment is being proposed on both the state and Federal levels. In spite of the fact that medical attendant staffing proportions remain politically dubious, the logical proof is convincing that these proportions have a critical moment on nature of consideration, and a powerful group of writing has amassed showing that decreases in the patient-to-attendant proportion are connected with huge diminishments in mortality, unfavorable occasions, and patient length of sit mean(a).MethodsStudy designThis was a review study utilizing totaled randomness for the year 2006 that was extricated from ED data frameworks. The neck of the woods institutional succeed board sanction this study and waived the necessity for educated assent.Study settingThis study was led utilizing information collect from co llar healing middle(a)s worked by Inter-mountain Healthcare, a non-for-profit incorporated conveyance arrange that works clinics and facilities in Utah and southern Idaho. The three clinics were picked in light of the fact that they change in size and setting and the way in which the ED interfaces with whatever is left of the clinic. panel beneath gives unmistakable measurements to every(prenominal) clinic, and special(a) significant office attributes take after.Table 1Operational descriptive statistics for three hospitals and hospital necessity departments (ED)infirmary yard bird bedsTrauma designationTeaching hospitalED beds (hall beds) sacred laboratoryPOCTDedicated skiagraphyDedicated radiologist serviceAverage hospital occupancy (SD)1270NANo27 (5)NoNoNoYes69.08% (15.16%)2475Level IYes25 (7)NoYesYesNo81.88% (9.22%)3350Level IINo28 (4)YesNoYesYes82.23% (9.59%)HospitalAverage ED patients per sidereal day (SD)Average ED patient wait time (SD)Average ED patient LOS (SD)Admis sion rateAverage ED patient board time (SD)Hospital occupancy 90%1144.75 (18.08)33.78 (26.95)168.81 (114.47)9.50%105.54 (69.22)5.75%2108.20 (12.50)23.07 (17.23)183.47 (106.07)21.20%77.86 (54.88)21.37%3120.60 (16.50)50.24 (41.56)185.38 (112.97)14.50%109.48 (97.88)25.48%Point of care laboratory testing.Average midday (12 pm) inmate hospital occupancy during 2006.Percent of time midday census exceeded 90% during 2006.Data collection and processingInformation for this investigation were extricated from Intermountain Healthcares Oracle base electronic information distribution reduce. Accumulated hourly information were separated by means of SQL questions. Measures of statistics were gathered for every hour. ED patient evaluation was spoken to as the tally of patients either sitting tight for or getting treatment in the ED. yardbird record was characterized as the quantity of patients possessing an inpatient bed. Interest for research facility assets was measured as the quantity of l ab batteries (e.g., complete blood check) that were gathered amid a given hour (e.g., 120000125959). Preparatory examination showed that 26 basic lab batteries (Appendix A) represented pretty nearly 80% of the research facility volumes at the EDs include in this investigation. With a specific end goal to better study the effect of inpatient request on ED request we verified that it would be most fitting to cutoff our examination to a center arrangement of research facility tests for which a noteworthy increment popular inside or remotely could have harmful impacts on ED operations. Thusly, just this center arrangement of 26 research facility batteries was incorporated in our numbers of ED and inpatient lab volumes. Comparative basis drove us to center our investigation on the interest for radiography and CT, as these two modalities represented right somewhat 90% of the interest for radiology administrations at the EDs examined. We gathered the quantity of radiography and CT examini ng requests for every hour from the ED and inpatient healing center. Extra variables gathered incorporate hourly numbers of patient entries. All variables gathered and include in our investigation are abridged in Table underneath.Table 2Time series variables collected for compend and inclusion in multivariate forecasting modelsVariableDefinitionED arrivalsCount of patients arriving to the ED during a given hourED censusCount of patients waiting for or receiving service in the ED on the hourED laboratory ordersCount of laboratory batteries order in the ED during a given hourED radiography ordersCount of radiography orders do in the ED during a given hourED computed tomography (CT) ordersCount of CT orders made in the ED during a given hourInpatient censusCount of patients occupying an inpatient bed on the hourInpatient laboratory ordersCount of laboratory batteries ordered in the inpatient hospital during a given hourInpatient radiography ordersCount of radiography orders made in the inpatient hospital during a given hourInpatient CT ordersCount of CT orders made in the inpatient hospital during a given hourOutcome measuresOut-of-sample forecast accuracy was assessed for forecast horizons ranging from one to 24h in advance by calculating the mean absolute error (MAE). The MAE is a frequently used and intuitive measure of forecast accuracy that measures the magnitude of the deviation between the predicted and discover set of a given time series. For a series of predicted valuesand the corresponding series of observed values (y1,y2,,yn)(1)Model validation and forecastingOur essential target was to assess the legitimacy of our models as far as their capacity to give precise post-test conjectures of registration and of the interest for indicative assets in the ED. This was finished through a reproduced post-test estimating situation in which we incrementally extended the preparation set by 1h and afterward produced figures for every single endogenous variable for skylines going from one to 24h ahead. This methodology empowered us to create one to 24h ahead figures for every one of the 840h in the betrothal set. We assessed the estimate precision of our models by registering the MAE for every figure skyline (124h). We analyzed the calculate exactitude attained to utilizing the VAR models to a benchmark uni-variate guaging technique. The benchmark strategy picked was occasional Holt-Winters exponential smoothing. Exponential smoothing is a standout amongst the most common determining strategies and in light of its prosperity and incessant utilization we felt that it gave a reasonable benchmark.The last goal was to investigate the potential utility of our multivariate determining models to give choice backing continuously for operational and asset designation undertakings. To do this we assessed the oppressive force of the yield from our gauging models in anticipating cases when satisfactory patient-to-medical attendant proportions would be surpassed. We utilized the four to one ED patient to ED attendant proportion that is commanded by the condition of California as our reference standard of an adequate patient-to-medical caretaker proportion. We characterized any happening where the watched ED registration surpassed the normal ED statistics by four or more patients (i.e., the ED is short-handed by a full attendant) as a case of under-staffing. We confirmed that in these cases it would be valuable to have propelled cautioning that would empower an extra RN to be reached preceding the adequate patient-to-attendant proportion being surpassed. care in mind the end goal to do this we entered the figure deviation from the normal ED enumeration (conjecture ED censusED expected registration) for figures made 112h ahead of time into a solitary variable logistical relapse model. The biased force of the single variable logistic relapse models taking into account the gauged deviation to anticipate occurrences of under-sta ffing was surveyed through the observational figuring of the full contribution under the collector working trademark bend (AROC) for every estimate skyline. Every measurable analysis including the determining model improvement and assessment were performed utilizing the R factual program.Table 3p-Values for bivariate Granger-causality tests conducted using the data from Hospital 1, column labels indicate which variable is being evaluated as a leading indicator (regressor), and language labels indicate which variable is being evaluated as the dependent variableDependent variableRegressorED nosecountED labsED radiographyED CTInpatient censusInpatient labsInpatient radiographyInpatient CTED censusNA0.110.950.940.930.90ED laboratoriesNA0.390.240.210.090.230.59ED radiographyNA0.540.710.370.250.02ED CTNA0.970.890.450.63Inpatient census0.980.880.160.24NA0.080.68Inpatient laboratory0.910.540.960.66NAInpatient radiography0.740.980.510.74NAInpatient CT0.350.110.250.07NATable 4Goodness-of-f it statistics (MultipleR2) for each endogenous variable included in the eighth order vector autoregression model for Hospital 1Endogenous variableMultipleR2ED census0.97ED laboratory volumes0.80ED CT volumes0.50ED radiography volumes0.70Inpatient census0.99Inpatient laboratory volumes0.91Inpatient CT volumes0.71Inpatient radiography volumes0.88Forecasting resultsSince our graphic investigations showed that almost no prescient worth was liable to be picked up by including variables speaking to inpatient request in estimating models for interest in the ED, we chose to fit two VAR models for every Hospital. VAR demonstrate 1, or the full model, included both inpatient and ED variables, while VAR display 2 included just ED variables. Both VAR models included ED understanding entries as an exogenous variable. Every model was equip for creating conjectures just for the endogenous variables included in the model in this manner, VAR display 1 created figures for inpatient and also ED vari ables, while VAR show 2 produced gauges just for ED variables. Since the accentuation of this study is gauging request in the ED we just report measures of exactness for ED variables. The consequences of our post-test model approval are introduced for every office. For every figure we present measures of the estimate slip (MAE) for conjecture skylines extending from 1 to 24h ahead for ED registration, lab, radiography, and CT volumes. Every figure demonstrates the MAE accomplished utilizing VAR models 1 and 2 and the gauge precision utilizing Holt-Winters exponential smoothing. At Hospitals 1 and 2, VAR models 1 and 2 gave more precise estimates of interest for all ED variables for conjecture skylines up to 24h ahead when contrasted with the benchmark uni-variate anticipating technique. At Hospital 3, VAR models 1 and 2 gave better or equivalent figure exactness for skylines up to 24h for ED patient statistics, and for ED research center and radiography volumes. We distinguished alm ost no contrast between the estimating execution of the full model, display 1, and the model that just joined ED variables, demonstrate 2. This outcome verifies what we found amid our distinct examinations, i.e., that minimal prescient quality would be gathered by demonstrating the collaborationism between interest in the ED and the inpatient doctors facility. Fig. 11 exhibits four different plots, in the first of all we see the watched contrasted with the normal ED evaluation (taking into account recorded midpoints) for one week (11/26/200612/2/2006) at Hospital 2. This figure demonstrates that in a few examples amid this specific week (e.g., atomic number 90 and Friday evening) there were vast deviations (12 patients or all the more) in the watched ED enumeration from the normal ED statistics. The three remaining plots in Figure present the watched ED registration contrasted with the guage ED statistics at 1, 2, and 3h ahead. These plots demonstrate that 1h ahead utilizing mode l 2 we have the capacity to figure ED statistics at a high level of exactness, at 2h ahead our expectations are slight precise yet ready to foresee critical takeoffs from typical ED evaluation levels, and at 3h ahead our forecasts start to relapse towards the normal ED registration. Fig. 12 presents watched, expected, and anticipated research center volumes in the same route as in Fig. 11 for that week. Pretty much just alike(p) the case with ED statistics, Fig. 12 display critical variety even in the wake of representing hourly and week after week cycles. On the other hand, dissimilar to ED evaluation our model does not seem to do almost also at foreseeing compelling flights from expected standards even at short. terminalVAR models gave understanding into the elements of interest in the ED and the inpatient healing facility at our neighborhood destinations, and gave more exact gauges of ED statistics for stretched out conjecture skylines when contrasted with standard univariate t ime arrangement techniques.http//home.ubalt.edu/ntsbarsh/stat-data/topics.htmhttp//www.j-biomed-inform.com/article/S1532-0464(08)00063-4/fulltext

Factors that influence consumer buying

Factors that capture consumer buyingFactors that Influence Consumer Behaviour Patterns, when Purchasing contrive Items 1.0 IntroductionConsumer demeanour is a complicated and diverse bea of study. Since securities industrying is based on identifying, anticipating and providing guest ineluctably it is important to understand them. There ar two predominant types of buying consumer buying, which consists of buying crossingions for in-person use, and organisational buying, which involves buying for organisational purposes. For marketers to satisfy consumer needs much than fully than competitors it is important to recognise the elements that influence buying.This report pass on identify the main factors influencing consumer behavior patterns, particularly when purchasing fashion items. It will examine how buyer characteristics influence buyer behaviour and as healthful how retailers react to such characteristics.In particular this report will visit at the cultural facto rs, demographic factors and mental factors that influence consumer buying.2.0 MethodologyAll research undertaken for this was is secondary. It was conducted between the dates of Monday sixteenth February 2004 and Thursday 11th March 2004.The main research databases used were* Mintel* EmeraldThe main books used were* Lancaster, G, Massingham, L, and Ashford, R (2002). Essentials of trade Understanding the Behaviour of Customers. 4th edition. McGraw-Hill Education.* Chisnall, P (1975). market A Behavioural Analysis. 1st edition. McGraw-Hill Book bon ton (UK) Limited.* Williams, K (1981). Behavioural Aspects of Marketing. 1st edition. Butterworth Heinemann.The Internet and databases used were accessed privately and also from the University of East London program library, Docklands campus. Books were borrowed from this library as well.3.0 pagan FactorsCulture affects consumer behaviour in a variety of ways. It relates to customs and beliefs that are in condition(p) from the socie ty in which an individual grows up. Culture is a huge area of study that often has indecipherable boundaries and fluctuates in degree of influencing consumers. Aspects of our socio-culture, such as sub-culture, social class and reference groups play distinct roles in influencing consumers. A common pattern of behaviour burn be observed within groups. Cultural channelize occurs at a very slow pace and can be seen to marketers as threats or opportunities.Cultural elements that influence consumer behaviour can also be said to be environmental influences.3.1 Reference groupsA reference group is one that the individual tends to use as the anchor point for evaluating his/her own beliefs and attitudes, (American Marketing Association, 2004) There are many different types of reference groups, which may ingest a direct or an indirect influence on attitudes, behaviour and self-image. Primary reference groups are those that an individual has continuous come through and through with, th ey may consist of family, friends, colleagues etc, and they hold the strongest influence over the individual. In secondary reference groups the individual has slight contact, such as an activities club, but still feels pressure to con pee-pee. Aspirational groups have the least contact with the individual, but the individual still strives to become similar. Celebrity endorsements could be said to be aspirational groups. Regard little as to whether an individual is, or seeks to become a member of a particular group, the group can still influence the individuals values, attitudes and behavioral patterns. The influence a reference group holds on an individual can be seen as positive, controvert or both.A honest example of primary reference groups is the street gangs in Manchester. Moran (2004) writes of the gangs of youths in which members moldiness dress according to the code of their gang. The gangs can be identified through wearing hooded tops, bandanas, balaclavas and gold chai ns. How perpetually, the Manchester Magistrates motor lodge has banned four members of a gang from wearing hooded tops, bandanas and balaclavas in an attempt to make them look less threatening and dilute the gang dress codes. Members and individuals who are influenced by the gangs are in an attempt to conform, more likely purchase items of clothing such as hooded tops and bandanas. Figure 1 demonstrates the appearance of a typical gang member.3.2 Sub-cultureA sub-culture could be defined as a group of individuals whose beliefs, values and behaviour differ from that of the predominant culture. There are many different sub cultures that are often referred to as segments. Some examples of subcultures include nationality groups, religious groups, geographic groups and age groups. Sub-culture plays an important part to marketers because of their influence on brands and types of product and services demanded by their members. Chisnall (1975) p.98.Mintel (2003) reports of an emerging fash ionable youth sub-culture, in which extreme sports is the focal point. This culture is rebelling forth from long working hours and heavy television watching disembodied spiritstyle. In this alternative culture the interest and fraternity of extreme sports has merged with music and clothing. A strong emphasis of this culture can be seen through clothing and footwear in particular. Baggy clothing is a dominant dress code. (See figure 2)Mintel estimates that consumers spend 4.5 billion on extreme sports goods in 2003, an increase of 29% on 1998. (See vermiform process 1, figure 3) Mintel also reports that levels of disposable incomes have influenced the rise in extreme sports. Between 1998 and 2003 disposable incomes have increased by 21%. (See appendix 1, figure 4)3.3 Social Class Within every society there exists a class organize. This refers to individuals who share certain similar characteristics, such as occupation, socialisation, teaching method and income. The rigidity of the class structure varies greatly in different societies. England could be said to have an open society, within which it is easy to belong from one class to another. However, less developed countries such as Cambodia, where there is very little destiny of social mobility, could be said to be a closed society. Since members from the same social class have alike characteristics they will also exhibit a similar pattern of behaviour. Social class plays a very big role in consumer behaviour. It can influence where an individual shops, such as market stalls, shopping malls or online, when and how often an individual shops, such as every day, weekly or periodic and what an individual shops for. The National Readership Survey has determined a popular and effective mixed bag of social groups. (See appendix 2, figure 5).Williams, T (2002) examines consumer behaviour in relation to social class. In a study involving 612 respondents it was assemble that income doesnt have a direct relati onship with class because there are huge overlaps between incomes of different classes. For example a doctor earning 30,000 a year would be middle class while a brick layer earning 50,000 a year would remain working class. However it was found that income does influence consumer behaviour within the context of social class. It was also found that education has a large bearing on consumer discipline processing and decision-making. More educated consumers such as university graduates tend to be knowledgeable of market forces and opportunities than the enlighten leaver. They read more, read different magazines, spend less time watching television, rely less on well know brands and put more time and effort into purchasing decisions. Varying levels of knowledge and perception lead to different behavioural patterns in decision making processes. 4.0 Demographical FactorsDemographic elements, such as age, sex, income, education and occupation are all individual factors that can significa ntly affect consumer behaviour. These elements influence the type of product an individual may want, where the individual may shop and also the purchase evaluation process. Demographic variables are some of the major factors pointed in market segmentation.As an individuals confront of life progresses, so the will needs and wants of a product. To help marketers make a clearer distinction between demographic groups for market segmentation classification bases have been developed.A Classification of Residential Neighbourhoods (ACORN) is a popular geo-demographic technique used as a segmentation base. ACORN maps geographically the concentrations of a particular type of individual and can be useful for lot marketers decide upon store locations and rateing direct mailing.The American Marketing Association (2004) looks at of the spending habits amongst teenagers. From surveys carried out in America its said that increasing amounts of teenagers are trying to look more trendy and fashion able. As a result they are becoming more responsive to trade and spending more money than ever on clothing. American youths aged 12 19 spent $175 billion in 2003 on change state, which is an increase of $20 from 2000. Marketers have become aware of how impressionable teenagers are. They have reacted by segmenting the youth and marketing directly to them. Shops such as Urban Outfitters target the youth market by watching their choices carefully to set the trends.4.1 The Life Cycle Stage An individual goes through various spirit levels throughout their life. Each stage of life will affect what the consumer needs and wants, the purchase evaluation process and volumes of expenditure. Consumer behaviour of a mavin individual will vary greatly for that of an individual who is unify with children. For a marketer to successfully target a market it is important to identify the main stages in an individuals life. Lansing, J and Morgan, J (1955) have devised a popular and successful b reak down of the life cycle of families. Each stage influences consumer behaviour in a different way. The stages are as follows1. Bachelor stage young single people.2. Newly married couples young, no children.3. The full come near 1 young married couple with dependent children.4. The full nest 2 older married couples with dependent children.5. The countermand nest older married couples with no children accompaniment with them.6. The solitary survivor older single people.Mintel (2001) reports that the greatest time of expenditure for a women in the AB social grade is during the bachelor stage. During this period 56% of women spent more than 500 on clothes in a year. However, during the newly married couples, full nest 1 and full nest 2 periods the percentage of women that spends 500 a year on clothes decreases to 35%. This percentage increases at the empty nest stage to 46%. (See appendix 3, figure 6)5.0 Psychological Factors Psychological factors are related to perceptions, motiv ations, attitudes and reputation of a consumer. These are all individual elements that can affect consumer behaviour. Although demographical research and the life cycle stage help to classify and quantify consumers it is necessary to have a broader vox populi, which will help to explain how life patterns influence purchasing decisions. Psychographics are usually based on demographic information as well as ratings of consumers activities, interests and opinions. Williams, K (1981) pg.915.1 Lifestyle VariablesLifestyles and patterns have strong influences on consumer behaviour. Figure 7 illustrates the main factors that form a lifestyle.5.2 Perception and MotivationPerception relates to an individuals interpretation of a product and company. An individual will subconsciously select and organise information presented by a company. As well as direct work through of sensory data, perception is also influenced by learning, attitudes and past experiences. It is important for a marketer to convey good brand awareness.Maslow recognises that people have varying needs and if the need is intense then they are propel to purchase the goods that will satisfy it. To illustrated this a hierarchy of needs has been created. Lancaster, G, Massingham, L, and Ashford, R (2002) pg. 80. Goldsmiths, R (2002) examines the personal characteristics of prevalent buyers. From a survey involving 533 consumers a link was found between that of frequent clothing buyers and similar psychological and motivational traits. The survey concluded that frequent clothing buyers were more likely to buy fashion items and were more susceptible to marketing efforts.5.3 PersonalityThe subject of personality is a very complicated area. There are many variables that must be taken into account when trying to obtain a comprehensive view of a personality. This makes it difficult for marketers to understand the link personality has with consumer behaviour. Williams, K (1981) pg.133.6.0 Market Segmentation, T arget Marketing and harvest-tide Positioning.For a marketer to satisfy customer needs efficiently and lucratively, understanding consumer behaviour is essential. Research into consumer behaviour has allowed the marketer to create target groups of people with common interests, values, beliefs and patterns of behaviour. Once a market segment has been identified, marketers can research the target market more thoroughly and the marketing mix, product, price, promotion and place can be adjusted to ensure the product position is correct. Batista (2004) reports of the clothing maker Benetton who plans to weave radio frequency ID chips into its garments to trail its clothes worldwide. Having the ability to track a customer would give the company extremely detailed information on customer buying habits. Benetton would then have a much better understanding of their target market, and be able to pull wires elements of the marketing mix, such as price, product, place and promotion for effec tively. The clothing manufacturer Prada already embeds RFID chips into its clothes.7.0 ConclusionTo conclude it is evident that consumer behaviour, in relation to buyer fashion items, is influenced by a huge array of factors. To grasp a more complete and accurate understanding consumer behaviour needs to be examined more thoroughly. This report has identified the basic factors that influence consumer, including culture, socio-culture, demographical, and psychological variables.Designers and retailers react to such behavioural characteristics by trying to break down and identify what causes them. It is important to investigate whether consumers can be sort out by similar patterns of behaviour. Once a market has been segmented through geographic, demographic, psychological, psychographic and socio-cultural variables the retailer can focalise a particular product to a particular type of person. The marketing mix is used to manipulate the product, place, price and promotion. Examples of retailers aiming at different segments of the market include Gucci and TopShop. While Gucci captures a more wealthy, professional and elect(ip) market, TopShop aims at a much larger and more varied market.9.0 References* American Marketing Association (2004). lexicon of Marketing Terms reference group. Retrieved 2nd March 2004. http//www.marketingpower.com/live/mg_dictionary-view3860.php. American Marketing Association (2004). Whats hot Whats Not Teens tastes in fashion change and change often. Teens also spend, and spend.* Retrieved Friday 5th March 2004. http//www.intellisearchnow.com/mp_pwrpub_view.scml?ppa=7iempYZhklooprVSlj%216%3C%22bfej%5B%21* Batista, E (2004). Wired News What Your Clothes Say About You. Retrieved 16th Feburary 2004.* http//www.wired.com/news/wireless/0,1382,58006,00.html* Chisnall, P (1975). Marketing A Behavioural Analysis. 1st edition. McGraw-Hill Book Company (UK) Limited.* Goldsmith, R (2002). Some Personality Traits of sponsor Clothing Buyers. Em erald, journal of consumer marketing, volume 6, number 3. Retrieved Friday 5th March. http//oberon.emeraldinsight.com/vl=3977275/cl=13/nw=1/fm=html/rpsv/cw/mcb/13612026/v6n3/s6/p303* Lansing, J, and Morgan, J, (1955). Consumer Behaviour Consumer finances over the life-cycle. 1st Edition. Clark, L.H., New York University Press.* Mintel, (2001). Marketing to ABs UK June 2001. Retrieved Saturday 6th March 2004. http//reports.mintel.com/sinatra/mintel/searchexec/fulltext=family+life-cycletype=reportsreport_titleresults=1000proximity=anywherevariants=trueorder=2/report/repcode=S192anchor=accessS192/doc/712626029repcode=S1920* Mintel, (2003). Extreme Sports UK November 2003. Retrieved Friday 5th March 2004. * http//reports.mintel.com/sinatra/mintel/searchexec/fulltext=sub-culturetype=reportsreport_country=224report_titleresults=1000proximity=anywherevariants=trueorder=2/report/repcode=L439anchor=accessL439* Moran, C (2004). style Crime hoodlums love their hooded tops. The Times.* Wil liams, T (2002). Social Class Influences on Purchase Evaluation Criteria. Emerald, Journal of Consumer Marketing, mess 19, Number 3. Retrieved Friday 5th March 2004 http//titania.emeraldinsight.com/vl=7203230/cl=70/nw=1/fm=html/rpsv/cw/mcb/07363761/v19n3/s5/p249

Responses to Genocide: Political and Humanitarian Strategies

Responses to Genocide Political and Humanitarian StrategiesPolitical expediency and addition imperatives in response to racial exterminationThis dissertation examines the human-centered crisis in the Sudanese region of Darfur during 2003-2004, a situation that has continued through to 2005. young reports from the World Food Programme estimate that the ferocity carried out by the tacitly governance- back up reservess a strainst the non-Arab civilian world in the region has left 3.5 million people hungry, 2.5 million elicitd by the violence and 400, 000 dead.The Darfur crisis has been a humanitarian disaster unseen since the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. It has been a situation that ultimately foreign authoritiess and supra topic organisations harbour been unable to ignore.Chapter two examines firstly the theoretical motilitys behind humanitarian treatment. The realist scheme of planetary in-person businessis at the essence of the debate reality suggests that says should puttheir own shelter and self interest before whatever(prenominal) honourable stipulation to intervene. Set in the context of Darfur, on that point was nonhing in spite of appearance the individual national interest of diametric individual states to intervene, notwithstanding at approximately point in the crisis the familiar assumption moved to fightds afeeling that discourse on the basis of humanity was required. The Rwandan genocide of 1994 and the worldwide response at the time isused as an deterrent example of naive realism dictating the initial response of theinternational community, only to be overtaken by a more deterrent example establish response once the sheer scale of the crisis and human rights depraves became app atomic number 18nt.Chapter three looks at pointts in Darfur in detail, from the beginnings of the crisis to the up-to-the-minute situation. Using media sourcesas well as reports from organisation such as the UN and Human Rights Watch, thi s chapter summarises the main events of the crisis, with examples of the indiscriminate violence used by the government-backed Janjaweed militias against the civilian population in Darfur. The response of the Sudanese government a persistent with the move it took to prevent humanitarian intervention atomic number 18 describes, as argon the actions, or in m all cases, the inaction of sections of the international community. The actions of the Sudanese government activity would appear to be driven by the state centric realism that Webber and Smith term acentral driving pound for human motivation, namely a quest for indicantChapter quatern attempts to analyse events in Darfur against the theoretical frameworks detai direct in chapter two. Realist assumptions continue to carry a certain weight in international political sympathies, solely there ar examples of some more ethical policy make within the international community. The roles of the Sudanese regimen, the UN, the US a nd other Western nations argon looked at against theoretical positions.Chapter five offers some conclusions on the internationalresponse to Darfur.At the heart of any analysis of the international response to thecrisis in Darfur lies the question why should any genius care about Darfur.Whilst theories supporting merely wars and humanitarian intervention fromthe likes of Kaldor and Walzer argue that there is a basic humanmorality that requires states that are able to intervene to stop thesuffering of oppressed people, a realist perspective, unrivaled thatrepresented the initial international response to Darfur, is that thekey valuate of national interest is independence and security. It is aquestion that has been at the crux of international relations forcenturies intervention in the affairs of other sovereign state isan rationalise that has generated much debate.State sovereignty has long been a fundamental pillar of internation toociety and non-intervention has ensured that individual states can buoymaintain their governmental independence and territorial integrity.International organisations pee gener every(prenominal)y supported this principlewith, for example, Re resultant role 2131 of the UN General Assembly in 1965statingNo state has the right to intervene, directly or indirectly in theinternal or external affairs of any other state. Consequently, armedintervention and all other skeletal frames of interference or attempted threatsagainst the personality of the State or against its political, scotch, or cultural elements are condemned. Regional organisationshave taken a similar view the Organisation of American Statestotally prohibits direct or indirect intervention in the affairs ofanother state. A wide range of political theory as well as supports the viewthat sovereignty is all-important and one state should not interfere inthe affairs of another.Nonetheless, international affairs since the establishment of thenation-state have seen inte rvention by states in the affairs of otherfor a number of reasons. The earliest interventions were for economicand strategic reasons and to secure territorial security nineteenth vitamin C European interventions in Africa and Asia to establish coloniesserve as an example of this. In the early twentieth century the USbegan to utilise a different type of intervention, intervening in theaffairs of Central American states such as Nicaragua to encourage interior(prenominal) political order, reduce economic corruption and reinforce itsown twine in the region. Such action drew the attention of realistcritics who have influence US foreign policy thinking more recently.Realists have alleged that the adherence to moral principles and thefailure in the past to understand the power essence of interstaterelations has led to unwise and unsuccessful policies , for example tofailed humanitarian intervention in Somalia. Certainly, the memories ofSomalia will have effected thinking on a political a nd humanitarianresponse to Darfur.The Cold war saw intervention across the globe by the two superpowerseither to enhance their own strategic security or to advanceideological goals, for example the USSR moving to strengthen communismin Czechoslovakia in 1968 or the US challenging anti-democratic forcesin Grenada in 1983.It is however, humanitarian intervention that is most relevant to thesituation in Darfur, an type of intervention that according to JackDonnelly is foreign intervention that seeks to furbish up mass andflagrant violations of the basic rights of foreign nationals by theirgovernment The failure of states and subsequent abuses of humanrights in the latter stages of the twentieth century have presentedother governments with numerous scenarios where they have to make findings as to whether military machine intervention for humanitarian reasonsis justified. It is a complex issue that poses a number of legal andmoral issues.Amstutz argues that humanitarian intervention p resents a legalchallenge to the accepted dodges of state sovereignty along with amoral challenge to the right of self-determination. Whilst the demandfor order, justice, stability and human rights may turn back theseconcerns, politicians are also exampled with the decision as to whether,how and when their country should instigate humanitarian intervention.Such interventions can generally be justified if two criteria are metfirstly that humanitarian intervention be in the interests of theintervening state, i.e. that it perceives the human rights abuses inthe foreign state as a general threat to the order, legitimacy andmorality of global society, or as a occurrence threat to its owneconomic prosperity secondly that the intervention must be in theinterests of the civilian population of the intervened state and thatthe legal and moral issues around military intervention can bejustified by the overall good that is accomplished. NATO interventionin Bosnia can be seen as an example o f a situation that met the gradeercriteria, the situationsin both Rwanda and Darfur would appear to meetthe latter.Michael Walzer who has written extensively on just war theory andintervention argues that humanitarian intervention should be seen asdifferent from instigating a military conflict. As well as the legalistargument against intervention in the affairs of another state, there isalso the difficulty of intervention in a country that has not committedaggression against another state there is a danger that interveningstates can be seen as portraying the means treat your people the waywe call up you should or be subject to the threat of armed punishment.Walzer nonetheless believes that even if intervention threatens theterritory and political independence of another state, there are timeswhen it can be justified. The onus of substantiation of justification howeverlies with the organiseer of the state that intervenes and this can be aheavy burden, not only because of the co ercions and ravages thatmilitary intervention brings, but also because it is thought that thecitizens of a sovereign state have a right, insofar as they are to becoerced and looted at all, to suffer only at one anothers hands.Arguments that states should, checkless of how they are governed,should be left to deal with own affairs and influenced by the thoughtsof John Stuart Mill who argued from a utilitarian viewpoint stronglyfor the right of a single political community to determine its ownaffairs whether or not its political arrangements are free is not anissue for other states members of any political society mustcultivate their own freedom in the way that individuals must cultivatetheir own virtue, self-help rather than intervention from an externalforce must be the way towards a just society. Such arguments do notstand up when applied to some of the arrogant and well-documentedhuman rights abuses of the twentieth century foreign governments makedecisions base on a realist perspective not to intervene, butnon-intervention based on the idea of self-determination is to avoidthe issue and cloud behind outdated ideas. There is a point at whichrealism has to be put aside and some form of moral stance must betaken. For Walzer, there are three situations in which theinternational resistance to marches crossings can be ignored1.when a particular set of boundaries clearly contains two or morepolitical communities, one of which is already enmeshed in a large-scalemilitary struggle for independence that is, when what is at issue issecession or national liberation2.when the boundaries have already been crossed by the armies of aforeign power, even if the crossing has been called for by one of theparties in a civil war, that is, when what is at issue iscounter-intervention and3.when the violation of human rights within a set of boundaries is soterrible that it makes lecturing of community or self-determination orarduous struggle seem cynical or irrelevant, th at is, in cases onenslavement or massacreHis criteria present a realistic scope for intervention. For all theideas of ethical foreign policies there has to be some realism ininternational relations in that states cannot simply intervene in everydispute amid neighbours or outbreaks of political unrest in otherstates. Walzers criteria, particular his third, limit interventionwhen serious abuses of human rights appear to be taking place. At thispoint, political expediency and national self-interest should be putaside.Ultimately, Walzers thinking lead him towards an ethical theory ofpeace on the basis of sovereignty and other widely accepted statesrights. His values form the basis of a legalist paradigm, which providethe moral and legal structure for maintaining international peace. Hislegal paradigm also outlines the criteria for use of force tointervene. Its six key principles are1.An international society of independent states exists 2.The states comprising the international society have rights,including the rights of territorial integrity and political sovereignty 3.The use of force or threat of force by one state against another constitutes aggression and is a criminal act 4.Aggression justifies two types of action a war of self-defence bythe victim and a war of law enforcement by the victim and any othermembers of the international society 5. nonhing but aggression justifies war 6.After the aggressor state has been militarily repulsed, it can be punished. Irrespective of the situation in a particular state and the legal ormoral issues around any form of intervention, the realist view ofinternational affairs can lead statesmen to decide againstintervention. Realists from Thucydides, Hobbes and Machiavelli throughto the likes of Kissinger and Waltz remain strictly atheistic aboutmoral concepts within international relations and assume that statesgoing to war or engaging in any form of intervention are more motivatedby power and their own national security th an any moral issues. Thephrase alls fair in love and war is often applied to the realistperspective with Walzer writing referring specifically to war,realists believe that it is an intractable part of an anarchical worldsystem, that it ought to be resorted to only if it makes sense in termsof national self-interest in effect there are no moralconsideration in regard to military intervention, the human rightsabuses occurring in another state are of short importance to realists,intervention will only be considered if it is considered to beeconomically or strategically of value to the intervening state or itsleaders. This value can be political on occasions. There is littledoubt of the power of modern media to put pressure on politicians. TheUS intervention in Somalia and NATO action in Bosnia were to someextent related to unrestricted pressure on politicians to do something aboutscenes being broadcast into the homes of the electorate.Thinking on humanitarian intervention has had to suit more recently tothe untested type of wars that have proliferated across the globe since theend of the Cold War, for example the conflicts in the former Yugoslaviadriven by ancient ethnic hatreds. Certainly with the demise of thestand off between two military superpowers there has been greater scopefor the UN and individual states to become involved in conflictresolution and throughout the 1990s the UN has found itself constantlyinvolved in providing humanitarian aid, establishing safe havens,disarmament and demobilisation operations, monitoring and maintainingceasefires.New wars have involved a blurring of the distinction between war(usually defined as violence between states or organised politicalgroups), organised crime (violence undertaken by in private organisedgroups for private purposes, usually financial gain) and large-scaleviolations of human rights (violence undertaken by states orpolitically organised groups against individual). Some of the ethnichatred that has fu elled new wars has in particular led to terriblehuman rights abuses events that put moral pressure on others states toconsider intervention. Mary Kaldor suggests that there are two types ofresponse to new wars one is to draw on the old war idea of the nationstate and look for solutions along the lines of intervention and peacekeeping mission whilst the other response is a more negative and fatalisticoutlook because the wars cannot be understood in traditional terms,they are thought to represent a reversion to primitivism or anarchy andthe most that can be shame therefore is to ameliorate the symptoms. Inother words, wars are treated as natural disasters.Kaldors view rightly challenge the realist assumption that statesshould not involve themselves in humanitarian intervention unless thereis some advantage to be gained in a self-interested pursuit of power.What is required is a more political response to new wars and the ravishs on human rights that accompany them. The internationa lcommunity should be looking towards politics of inclusion that capturethe hearts and minds of protagonists and any such politicalmobilisation should override traditional geopolitics or short termdomestic concerns. This type of thinking moves restrictingr to a type ofneo-realism which places more of an wildness on the structural featuresof the international system and avoids the stress on the often anarchicstriving for power that reflects traditional realism. The drawback tothe neo realist approach is that its reliance on the determining impactof the structure of the international system allow policy makersrelatively little discretion. This can be seen to some extent in Darfuras representative from various states struggled to find a solution tothe crisis that met with consensus.There have of course been embarrassments for individual states andinternational organisations with attempts at humanitarian interventionin the 1990s, setbacks that will give weight to realist theory thatsov ereign states should on the whole be left well alone. Kaldorconcludes that humanitarian intervention has had mixed successat best, people have been fed and fragile ceasefires have beenagreed.at worst the UN has been shamed and humiliated, as, forexample, when it failed to prevent genocide in Rwanda, when theso-called safe haven of Srebrenica was overrun by Bosnian Serbs, orwhen the hunt for the Somali warlord Aideed ended in a mixture of farceand tragedy.Nonetheless, the arguments for humanitarian intervention remain strong.Darfur is as good an example as any for this. As Orend writes whyshould foreign states, which themselves respect human rights, be barredin principle from intervening in such outlaw(a) regimes?Rwanda in particular serves as an example of both foreign states andinternational organisations initially taking a realist stance only toeventually to be spurred into action by the sheer scale of the genocidetaking place. In Frances case, the links between the goodish elit esin the two countries had long been established not only had Francelong supported the Hutu regime but Francois Mitterand and RwandanPresident Habyarimana were personal friends, whilst their sons, JeanChristopher and Jean-Pierre were also friends and business associates.The two countries had mutual economic interests and there is yardthat Jean Christopher was one of Frances biggest implements of war dealers to Rwanda.The French response to the developing crisis, when it came, was farfrom glorious. Rather than intervene to provide further killings itdecided to pull out its troops. In the previous week, the first of thegenocide they had evacuated as many as 1361 people including 450 Frenchnationals and 178 Rwandan officials and their families. No otherRwandan nationals were evacuated, not even Tutsi force-out from theFrench embassy or well-known opponents of the regime who had alreadybeen targeted by the militia.The role of the United Nations mission (UNAMIR) has receivedconsiderab le review in analyses of the genocide. The UN had its owninternal politics to contend with and its policies on Rwanda were inturn determined to some extent by realist self-interest. As anorganisation it was largely reliant on the support of its most powerfulmembers on the certification Council. These nations, mindful of thedisastrous US intervention in Somalia were wary of investment troops andfinances into another African conflict. Realism came to the forefrontof the early decision making process. Human Rights Watch, in additionto criticism of the UN for not taking heed of Dallaires warnings, isalso critical of the scale of the mandate itself. It describes thedetails of the mandate as followsNot only was the UN slow, it was also stingy. The United States, whichwas assessed 31 per cent of UN peacekeeping costs, had suffered fromthe enormous 370 per cent increase in peacekeeping expenses from 1992to 1993 and was in the process of reviewing its policy on such operations.Quite simpl y the UN was not furnish to keep the peace in Rwanda.Members on its influential Security Council did not have the politicalwill to get involved, nor were they voluntary to take on the financialburden. The US and the UK, although less involved in Rwanda thanFrance, were similarly guilty of happily ignoring warnings of realisticgenocide and workings towards the maintenance of the status quo. Bothhad sold arms to the Hutu regime and had trading links with Rwanda.Both also had little appetency to see their own troops caught up as partof an UN force in Rwanda. The theory of non-intervention, as strange torealism is another view that opposes humanitarian intervention. The keyassumptions and values for this concept are the existing anarchic international system is morally legitimate peoples have a right to political self-determination states have a judicial right to sovereignty and territorial integrity states have an obligation to resolve conflicts peacefully force is a illegitimat e instrument for altering the existing territorial boundariesNon intervention theory argues in favour of an internationallegitimacy of states in which existing states are entitled to autonomyand domestic legitimacy which assumes that states are entitled torespect and support when they fulfil their core group obligations as states.In terms of domestic legitimacy, in the light of the circumstance that thereare wide disparities in conceptions of human rights, this canessentially be interpreted that whether a state is entitled tonon-intervention depends largely on its subjects approval of theregime itself.The counter-arguments of realism and moral intervention continue toplay a major role in international politics and are likely to continueto do so. It is a sad fact that the list of oppressive governments andmassacred populations is lengthy. Walzer points out that for every Naziholocaust or Rwanda there will be a number of smaller examples ofinjustice and abuse so many that the intern ational community cannothope to deal with. On a small scale at least, Walzers suggestion thatstates dont send their soldiers into other states, it seems, only tosave lives. The lives of foreigners dont weigh that heavily in thescales of domestic decision-making rings true humanitarianintervention in smaller-scale situations is simply not realistic. Agreater test for the moral resolve of NGOs and wealthier nations istheir response in the face of large-scale humanitarian disasters andhuman rights abuses, again using Walzers words, when dealing with actsthat shock the moral conscience of mankind.Ethical questions around the issues of international moral obligationstowards nations suffering from oppressive regimes and human rightsabuses are not easily resolved. Whilst humanitarian aid or interventionis generally seen as a morally correct highroad of action, politicalexpediency quite often takes precedence. Whilst it is generallyaccepted that, as Grotius believed, war ought not to be undertakenexcept for the enforcement of right and when once undertaken it shouldbe carried on within the bounds of law and good faith, national selfinterest does not always allow for a strategy led by such moralincentives. In Darfur, the action of the capital of Sudan Government couldcertainly not be described as driven by moral incentives whilstelsewhere early responses to the crisis were driven by politicalexpediency Major states have to ask themselves which moral valuesshould influence their foreign policies and which international valueis more important sovereignty or human rights? The answer should behuman rights, yet there is a fine line between using these values froma moral perspective or manipulating them into a realist opportunity toindulge the national interest with intervention elsewhere. There areother difficult questions do human rights violations give up foreignintervention and at what scale? Does international political moralityrequire the removal of illegal milit ary regimes and the restoration ofdemocracy? There are countless regimes around the world to which theworld might turn its attention and ask itself these questions. For themost part, small conflicts and small-scale abuse of human rights are,rightly or wrongly, ignored. The situation in Darfur from 2003 onwardshowever gave the international community a scenario that it could notignore. The world had to make decisions upon hundreds of thousands oflives would rest. Chapter tercet The crisis in DarfurThe current situation in Darfur can be traced back to February 2003when fighters from the Sudanese Liberation relocation (SLM) and theJustice and Equality Movement (JEM) launched joints attacks againstgovernment garrisons in protest at what they saw as decades ofpolitical oppression and economic disrespect by the Sudanese government.The attacks came at the same time that there had been high hopes of apeace settlement to the war in southern Sudan that had been ongoingbetween the governme nt and the Sudan Peoples Liberation Movement/Army(SPLM/A) since independence in 1965.The governments response was unequivocal. Citing the rebels as anaggressive force against the state it set out to crush the rebellion byforce and utilised the powerful force of Arab Janjaweed militias toattack not particularly rebel soldiers but the civilian populationsfrom where the rebels would have originated. The government expectedto crush the revolt, partially as it had done so in 1991 when a SPLA unitinfiltrated Darfur, and partly as it expected a wish on internationalinterest as Darfur was an internal Northern Sudanese issue with noChristian population and no oil interests involved. Khartoum ledmilitary activity in late 2003 to early 2004 was brutal (acounter-insurgency of extraordinary ferocity) and carried out whilstthe government prevented any humanitarian aid reaching the civilianpopulation. It was an action led by political expediency withabsolutely no regard for the human rights of an innocent civilianpopulation. Hugo Slim describes the military action as completelydisproportionate to the targeted guerrilla warfare of the two Darfurinsurgent groups and states that systematic and widespread governmentand Janjaweed assaults on civilians, their villages, theirinfrastructure and their livelihoods along with forced displacement andland-grabbing, intended to make it impossible for the terrorised andevicted populations to return. As this went on, the Government alsoenforced what was almost a complete ban on humanitarian aid accessingthe country between October 2003 and February 2004. untimely talks on the crisis saw the Khartoum Government deliberatelystonewall on major issues. It objected to upgrading the small AUobserver force from three hundred to 3500,with an increase in its mandate toinclude protecting civilians, and was then forced to accept thismeasure by the UN Security Council. It was a realist approach lookingsolely after its own interests and using delay i n an internationalresponse to move along with its aim to displace the population ofDrafur.Government and Janjaweed CooperationThere is little realdoubt that the government has worked closely with the Janjaweedmilitias. Human Rights Watch (HRW) investigations concluded thatgovernment forces and militia troops have taken part in massacres andsummary executions of civilians, burnings of towns and villages andforcible depopulation of areas across Darfur. We are the governmenthas been a common response of Janjaweed at checkpoints and whenentering villages and HRW reports that the government and itsJanjaweed allies have killed thousands of Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa often in cold blood, raped women and destroyed villages, food stocksand other supplies essential to the civilian population..In the early stages of the conflict, the Sudanese government barelyattempted to conceal its close working with the Janjaweed. Mans writesthat the Janjaweed militias are said to be of largely Chadian origi nand finance themselves through plunder and pillage, reportedly enjoyingimplicit support from the Government in Khartoum. But this isunderstating the relationship between the two. In April 2004, theSudanese Foreign Minister, Mustafa Osman Ismail, admitted a commoncause with the Janjaweed stating the government may have turned ablind eye to the militiasThis is true. Because these militia aretargeting the rebellion. President Bashir also had spoken on 31December 2003 of the governments determination to defeat the SLArebellions and warned darkly that the horsemen would be one of theweapons it would use.There is other clear evidence of well established links between thegovernment and Janjaweed leaders. Many of the militia leaders areestablished emirs or omdas from Arab tribes who have previously workedin government. For example, Abdullah abu Shineibat, an emir of the BeniHalba tribe is a Janjaweed leader in the Habila-Murnei area, whilstOmar Saef, an omda of the Awlad Zeid tribe is lea der of the Janjaweedfrom Geineina to Misterei. Other evidence pointed to a similarconclusion of complicity between government and militia Janjaweedbrigades were organised along army lines with forces wearing similaruniforms and officers using the same mark militia forces used thesame land cruisers and satellite phones as army personnel and there isevidence that Janjaweed members were given assurances that they wouldnot face local prosecution for crimes, with police forces beinginstructed to leave them alone. Again, the prevailing issue here ispolitical expediency overcoming any possible humanitarian response.Both the Government and Janjaweed had interests in devastating Darfur there was political gain for the Government and financial gain for theJanjaweed. Both took the realist option of looking after themselves.Government and Militia forces attack civiliansOne of the most storied traits of the crisis in Darfur has been the fact that bothgovernment and militia forces have largely i gnored rebel forces,preferring to use their weapons against the civilian population inareas that rebels may have originated from. HRW investigationsuncovered 14 incidents in Dar Masalit alone between family line 2003 andFebruary 2004 in which 770 civilians were killed. It also gatheredwitness testimony to mass executions in the Fur areas of Wadi Salihprovince over the same period.Aerial bombardment of civilians has also been commonplace. The SudaneseGovernment has made extensive use of attack aircraft, dropping bombsloaded with metal shards to cause maximum injury and also utilisinghelicopter gun ships and MiG jet fighters. Bombing has also beendeliberately targeted at villages and towns where displaced citizenshave gathered for example on August 27 2003, aircraft carried out anattack on the town of Habila which was jam-packed with displaced civiliansfrom surrounding areas. 24 were killed.Government and Janjaweed forces have also systematically attacked anddestroyed villages, food stocks, water sources and other essentialitems essential for the survival of villages in West Darfur. Refugeesin Chad have confirmed a sweep south east of Geneeina in February 2004saw the destruction of a number of villages including Nouri, Chakoke,Urbe, Jabun and Jedida.The International ResponseThe international response to the situation in Darfur has been mixed,characterised by a willingness to condemn the Sudanese Governmentalongside a dragging of heels in actually intervening to stop what theUS Government has labelled genocide. Alex De Waal suggests thatpolitical repercussions for the Sudanese Government were gravewriting International attention and condemnation exceeded allexpectations, culminating in Darfur being brought before the UnitedNations Security Council in July 2004 This analysis however fails tomention the scale of the crisis in the preceding months and suggests amore positive and effective response by the international communitythan was actually the case.. The int ernational community may eventuallyhave come around to taking Darfur seriously but much later than wasrequired. As Hugo Slim concludes the international community has notdenied, but it has delayed and dithered. Once engaged it fumbled andtook far too long to achieve a united and sufficiently assertiveresponse.There was a notable reluctance from the UN in particular to use theword genocide in relation to Darfur, a similar specimen to that had beenfollowed in Rwanda a decade earlier. It was in fact US Secretary ofState Powell that announced on September 9th 2004 that the USgo

Painting The Sistine Chapel By Michelangelo Religion Essay

Painting The Sistine Chapel By Michelangelo Religion EssayMichelangelo painted the Sistine chapel between 1508 and 1512. Later a student of his, Giorgio Vasari, writes that when the work was thrown open the whole military personnel came course to see what Michelangelo had done and certainly it was such as to make everyone reticent with astonishment(Gillgren,(2001). The Sistine chapel is profoundly Christocentric. It was not made as a song of intellect but as a form of worship. It is not an transmission line or an Iconic display, although both of these argon present in the painting. The deprecative examination of the chapel at times loses the simplicity that this is just grand stratagem (Dixon, (1988).The focus of Michelangelos art was man, which on the surface seems to confirm Burckhardts analysis of the Renaissance. Neo-Platonism, however, provided a framework for reconciling secularism with Christianity. The Neo-platonists interest in man originate in from his belief th at man was that element which tied the universe together. His interest in beauty, as reflected in Michelangelos preoccupation with the nude, arose from his identification of beauty with the highest good. Far from organism worldly in content, the Neo-Platonist argued that the body was the dungeon of the person Michelangelos contorted figures represent the struggle of the soul to free itself from matter and achieve a imagination of God (Robb, N. (1935).In his book Painting of the High Renaissance in Rome and Florence, S J Freedberg made an effort to define the art of Michelangelo in relation to Neo-Platonism. It is said that can the art of Michelangelo in the Sistine chapel be reduced to concepts like Neo-Platonist or Christian. An iconological understanding must lie with both, and also recognize that with the human form is not made from tradition and a lot is Michelangelos own interest in Classical sculpt and to the very particular culture of humanist Italy at the beginning of t he ordinal century.Upon move intoing the chapel, one can see historical scenes ratiocination to the entrance. These sides argon filled with figures, while the scenes close to the altar only show a few figures. The Prophets and the Sibyls by the entrance ar smaller than the ones by the altar. pull down as the architecture is expanding, the first Prophets and Sibyls are seated steadily on their thrones. The latter ones further in almost seem to be go down the wall toward the floor (Gilgren, (2001). at that place are two competing explanations for this. wholeness thought is formalistic and the other one iconological. Then there is a third, a quite uncomplicated explanation has really not been presumptuousness its due consideration The increase makes it possible for the spectator entering the chapel through the old entrance (not the present one, where most people enter today) to see the whole work in just one gaze. The figures close by are smaller and the scenes more crowded, t he ones further a elbow room are larger and more sculptural-and can therefore be seen all the way from the entrance. While taking in this view is easy to understand the crescendo as a means toward making the work available to the spectator. It is a way to communicate (Gilgren, (2001).Michelangelo and the thought of the Neo-platonic Academy suggest that the Renaissance was not as secular or as irreligious as Burckhardt would fork up us believe. Christianity was still a potent a force. The modes of expressing it in the Renaissance, however, were distinct from those of the Middle Ages. While Saint Bernard and the Benedictine tradition urged the Christian to depopulate life in the world, Renaissance Neo-Platonism found God in bonnie things. The Renaissance man did indeed tend to worship the world, but at least for the Neo-Platonist, this was part of the worship of God. Michelangelo once said that art is brought from heaven. precisely manufacturer inspiration could convey created the David and the Sistine Chapel detonating device, and it was to the divine that Michelangelo wished to appeal (Robb, N. (1935).The roof of the Sistine Chapel in a way follows a similar pattern. When the ceiling is divided it is done so in a series of squares, triangles and circles. There are three zonas to the ceiling division. The lower zone where very subaltern light is received is defined by De Tolnay as peopled by a race enduring variations of the human condition. According to Fleming, the middle zone is a mix of Old Testament prophets and some heathen symbols that have knowledge of the Divine and mediate between man and God. The contrast of the pagan symbols and biblical prophets suggests a idea which is not completely Christian. The use of prophets and pagan examples side by side kind of suggests that Michelangelo was looking at the qualities they divided up as being important instead of the specific beliefs they stood for. They are fit to Fleming the inspired men and women who, through the exercise of their minds and imaginations, became the mediators between the human and divine spheres. Angels would have been representing these symbols in most of the other traditional Christian art.The ceiling of the chapel is perhaps the most famous. In the center the story of numerous and his relationship with God is shown. The famous finger to finger painting in the center is very well known and everywhere replicated in the world today. It looks like the ceiling is a portrait of biblical memoir from instauration and then ending with the Last Judgment. The first scene which is the Drunkenness of Noah is concordant with Neo-Platonism. Neo-Platonism will often show the lowest state of a soul by drunkenness. The panels of the ceiling go on to show man in his low state to creation. In the panel the Creation of Adam, there are two under the arm of God. As De Tolnay states One is a girl, who represents the Platonic idea of Eve, preexisting in the divine intel lect. The last panel, God Dividing the fallible from Darkness, shows what a depiction of a complete pure being is. In the Creation of Eve, Michelangelo portrayed God as a human. If you start with at the beginning with the Drunkenness of Noah, the painted story goes through biblical history to where freedom finally and forever is achieved. The panels, because of this progression may then be interpreted as a Neo-Platonism manifesto (Vess, D. (1998).

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS): Improving Treatments

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) Improving TreatmentsSummaryamyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a progressive, fatal motoneurone unhealthiness, ultimately leading to paralysis and respiratory failure deep down 3-5 years. There is currently only one FDA-approved drug, Riluzole, only its lack of disorder prolongation combined with the aggressive disease nature means identifying virgin treatments is essential. This review highlights 3 of the most current and assure search beas. fresh Phase 1 Clinical trials bewilder proven safety of angry walk cell (SC) implantation in humans. Parallel rodent SC models demo positive results in both decelerating disease progression and promoting anti-instigative neuronic protection. Supplementary use of growth factors too shows potential regarding motoneurone excerption and dendrite length in cultivations, and survival rates in mouse models.Knockout of glial xC- glutamate anti-porter significantly reduces excess ive glutamate levels in neurones by 70%, compared to xC- +/+ microglia. Knockout also reduces levels of pro- seditious markers. These findings highlight vital role of xC- system in simplification neuronal glutamate excitotoxicity.Antisense technologies effectively bring down SOD1 protein and template RNA levels, consistent in CSF and capitulum of SOD1 rodent cortices. This supports SOD1 as a dangerous biomarker for proximo(a) antisense studies.Overall, there is promising research being conducted. However improvements in clinical trial techniques essential be shrouded in order to reliably compare findings from future studies, and allow identification of a cure in the future.Summary intelligence information count 213IntroductionAlso known as Lou Gehrigs disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) involves loss of upper and lower motoneurones from the brainstem and spinal anesthesia stack. Symptoms progress from difficulty in limb movement to paralysis, and finally respira tory failure, the biggest cause of death in ALS. With a prevalence of approx. 2100,000 and modal(a) onset age of 55 years, death usually occurs 3-5 years aft(prenominal) onset.Although first identified in 1869 by Jean-Martin Charcot, there remain no conclusive disease causes. The disease is classified into 2 types Familial ALS (fALS), the inherited form, is responsible for approx. 10% of all cases. There are a handful of genetic mutations linked to fALS, including C90RF72, TDP-43, FUS, Ubiquilin-2, and currently most relevant in disease-models, Cu2+/Zn2+ Superoxide Dismutase (SOD1). Sporadic (sALS) form comprises the majority of cases, and this unknown nature of the disease makes takeed treatments challenging.Riluzole is currently the only FDA approved treatment for ALS, increasing life prevision by 2 months. In 2011, Nuedexta was also approved as a treatment for pseudobulbar effects in ND diseases. Patients must otherwise blaspheme on palliative care to improve quality of life . This review impart tension on the most current and widely researched areas. Proposed mechanisms of disease are beyond the scope of this review, but can be bring in a review by Cleveland and Rothstein (2001).Stem Cell TherapyDue to its disreputable potential, stem cell (SC) therapy is perhaps the most widely researched treatment area. SC therapy aims to improve symptoms rather than cure the disease, by either targeting re-growth of neurones or promoting their survival. hither we will focus on clinical and pre-clinical SC trials in the survive 5 years.Direct neuronal replacementOne proposed treatment method is to replace dying motoneurones with SCs. Recent Phase 1 Clinical Trials by Glass et al., (2012) and Feldman et al., (2014) studied the safety of lumbar and cervical SC injections, respectively. both trials appoint good patient tolerance and sufficient safety to elapse with future trials.Feldman et al. also used histochemical analysis to address concerns all over unfor eseeable SC migration, by highlighting successfully transplanted SCs in spinal cord slices, form 1.Figure 1. B) Cross-section of spinal cord highlighting non-native cells C) Close-up shows sound structure of cells consistent with pre-implanted SCs, indicative of successful transplantation into spinal cord. Adapted from Feldman et al., 2014Despite triple limitations to the experimental technique, such as absence of a control group, results exhibitd too soon SC transplantation has a good chance of slowing disease progression in ALS patients, as 50% of patients showed improvement in 6-15 month post-trial check-ups. The corresponding Phase II Trial commenced in family line 2013, and is callable for completion this month.Figure 2 shows a previous sketch by Karussis et al., (2010) where SC injection leads to a significant increase in immune-regulatory cells (CD4+/CD25+) and an overall decreased immune response.Figure 2. Levels of neuronal cell inflammatory markers following inject ion of SCsAdapted from Karussis et al., 2014Reduction in immune response over 24hrs was in fact greater than seen in immunomodulatory medicines, suggesting additional mode of achievement for SC therapy.Neuronal survival via growth factor de livery discomfited trials in the late 1990s to treat ALS with growth factors (GFs) prompted pass on studies into appropriate central nervous system targeting. Development of the SOD1-mutant rat model allowed Suzuki et al., in 2008, to address these delivery issues in a study using SCs as GF vectors. They found GF delivery to mid-stage SOD1 rodents showed change magnitude neuromuscular connections, and a lifespan increase of 28 days, possibly due to reduced neuronal loss.Viral vectors for trophic factors (TFs) set aside an alternative delivery route, and in 2010, Dodge et al., carried out mouse embryonic-SC motoneurone studies in which shewion of TFs IGF-1 and VEGF-165 using viral vector, AAV4, allowed successful delivery of TFs to entirety of CNS. This slowed MN decline and change magnitude mouse survival. Figure 3 shows initial culture studies using mouse-derived embryonic motoneurone SCs, showing clear protective action on neurones.Figure 3. A) 70% of motoneurones died in control, GFP-CM, compared to high survival with IGF-1-CM/VEGF-CM. B,C) IGF-1-CM/VEGF-CM treated motoneurones showed increase neurite length and survival rates compared to control. Image from Dodge et al., 2010Subsequent mouse studies showed increase survival and decelerated reduction in hindlimb grip-strength and stamina on the rotarod, seen in Figure 4.Figure 4. A,C,E) Mouse studies depicting neuroprotective action of TFs, IGF/VEGF vs control. Image adapted from Dodge et al., 2010It is outlay noting that combined delivery of both TFs showed no synergistic effect, probably due to their affecting the same pathway. Subsequently, in 2013, Krakora et al., modified human mesenchymal SCs to further go over synergistic effect of combined GFs. A synergi stic effect amidst GDNF + VEGF was seen due to their action on different signalling cascades. This shows promise for future studies into amend neuronal survival.SC conclusionsPhase-1 clinical-trials have shown safety of SC injection into CNS with promising, if unreliable, patient outcomes. The mechanism of improvement still unidentified, but hints at inflammatory regulation in neural protection whitethorn open an evoke avenue. GF application shows further potential based on rodent/mice studies with a proven effect at slowing disease progression and neuronal loss. SCs make equal GF vectors as can be made to express/over-express GFs. Combining GF models with SC vectors for targeted delivery requires further exploration. Future trials must shell out frequency, dose and administration technique.Neuronal ExcitotoxicityMouse ALS models by Beers et al., (2011) and Liao et al., (2012) indicate microglia conversion from M2 (anti-inflammatory) to M1 (proinflammatory) state during disease . Believed to be due to glutamate toxicity, therapeutic work should focus on reducing excessive neuronal glutamate level, and reducing resultant pro-inflammatory response.In 2014, Mesci et al., studied the xC- system a glial antiporter exchanging cysteine for glutamate drum out, causing change magnitude neuronal glutamate. The study aimed to show blocking xC- would reduce excessive glutamate release and affect M1/M2 state, to reduce inflammation.xCT (transporter gene) -/- mouse microglial studies demonstrated a significant 70% reduction in glutamate release compared to XC- +/+. Furthermore, Figure 5 shows significantly increased pro-inflammatory factors in xC- +/+ mice microglia compared to -/-, hinting at a shift towards the M1 microglial phenotype via xC-.Figure 5. A-E) Levels of M1 pro-inflammatory factors in xCT -/- vs +/+ mouse microgliaImage from Mesci et al., 2014Interestingly, Mesci et al., also noted a 10-fold increase in anti-inflammatory M2 marker levels at pre-symptom atic phase in -/- mice which drops off at disease onset, indicating M1/M2 shift upon disease onset. Encouragingly, -/- microglia showed significant increase in motoneurone survival in -/- vs +/+ microglia, at 45% and 35% survival, respectively. This is indicative of a less(prenominal) neurotoxic environment.Finally, xC- -/- SOD1 mutated mice showed an overall deceleration in disease progression, shown by increased survival rates following advanced disease stage (20% free weight loss) in Figure 6.Figure 6. Survival in advanced ALS in xC- +/+ and -/- SOD1 miceNeurotoxicity conclusionsThese anti-excitotoxicity findings are consistent with the action of Riluzole. Future drugs may target xC- system, however current antagonists are poorly specific and available to brain. acknowledgement of a more suitable antagonist would be a good priority before further clinical trials.Antisense TechnologiesAntisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) bind to specific mRNA sequences to cause mRNA degradation. In 2013, Leah et al., conducted studies in SOD1 rodents and human subjects with neurodegenerative diseases. SOD1-targeting ASOs were introduced to subjects to reduce SOD1 levels.They found both SOD1 mRNA and protein fell by 694% and 4814%, respectively, in rodent cortices. Interestingly, this matched reduced protein levels by 4214% in rodent CSF, indicating CSF levels are a good measure of levels in brain.Unfortuntely, SOD1 cannot be a specific ALS marker due to its front line in other neurodegenerative diseases. However, its observed constant levels over time supports SOD1 as a good biomarker in indicating efficacy of antisense technologies and its effective targeting by ASOs may be useful in measuring brain SOD1 levels via CSF levels in future studies.A Phase 1 Clinical Trial by milling machine et al., (2013) to determine safety of single-dose intrathecal injection of ASOs found no safety concerns. However, liver cancer and neuropathy was previously seen in cases of chronic low SOD 1 levels (Elchuri et al., 2005), so long-run dosage effects must be carefully monitored.ConclusionsThis review was curtail to three main research areas, but areas such as strength gene identification, oxidative stress and protein misfolding, are also being explored. legitimate research shows promise, especially in SOD1 rodent models and positive safety data from Phase 1 Trials. SCs continue to have vast potential, and when combined with GFs have shown encouraging effects on disease progression in rodent models.Reliability of these studies, however, must be improved in order to retire accurate conclusions and compare findings from related studies. Ideally, a standard trial communications protocol should be implemented. Trials must also consider long-term effects of reduced SOD1 levels (in antisense techniques) and immunosuppressant use (with stem cells). Some issues may possibly be alleviated by recent development of new autologous SC models (Meyers et al., 2014).In short, curre nt ALS treatments remain palliative care and Riluzole, but with new developments continuously emerging there is definitely an exciting research landscape ahead. In October 2014, ALSA requested Phase II Trial proposals to make haste work in this area, meaning that the race is on to find suitable ALS treatment that may help patient prognosis in the future.Word count 1573119/09/2016